Biography of Polycarp, Christian Bishop and Martyr

Polycarp (60-155 CE), also known as Saint Polycarp, was a Christian bishop of Smyrna, the modern city of Izmir in Turkey. He was an Apostolic father, meaning he was a student of one of the original disciples of Christ; and he was known to other important figures in the early Christian church, including Irenaeus, who knew him as a youth, and Ignatius of Antioch, his colleague in the Eastern Catholic church. His surviving works include a Letter to the Philippians, in which he quotes the Apostle Paul, some of which quotes appear in the books of the New Testament and the Apocrypha. Polycarps letter has been used by scholars to identify Paul as the probable writer of those books. Polycarp was tried and executed as a criminal by the Roman empire in 155 C.E., becoming the 12th Christian martyr in Smyrna; the documentation of his martyrdom is an important document in the history of the Christian church. Birth, Education, and Career Polycarp was likely born in Turkey, about 69 C.E. He was a student of the obscure disciple John the Presbyter, sometimes considered to be the same as John the Divine. If John the Presbyter was a separate apostle, he is credited with writing the book of Revelations. As Bishop of Smyrna, Polycarp was a father figure and mentor to Irenaeus of Lyons (ca 120–202 C.E.), who heard his preachings and mentioned him in several writings. Polycarp was a subject of the historian Eusebius (ca 260/265–ca 339/340 C.E.), who wrote about his martyrdom and connections with John. Eusebius is the earliest source separating out John the Presbyter from John the Divine. Irenaeus Letter to the Smyrneans is one of the sources recounting Polycarps martyrdom. Martyrdom of Polycarp The Martyrdom of Polycarp or Martyrium Polycarpi in Greek and abbreviated MPol in the literature, is one of the earliest examples of the martyrdom genre, documents which recount the history and legends surrounding a particular Christian saints arrest and execution. The date of the original story is unknown; the earliest extant version was composed in the early 3rd century. Polycarp was 86 years old when he died, an old man by any standard, and he was the bishop of Smyrna. He was considered a criminal by the Roman state because he was a Christian. He was arrested at a farmhouse and taken to the Roman amphitheater in Smyrna where he was burned and then stabbed to death. Mythic Events of the Martyrdom Supernatural events described in MPol include a dream Polycarp had that he would die in flames (rather than being torn apart by lions), a dream that MPol says was fulfilled. A disembodied voice emanating from the arena as he entered entreated Polycarp to be strong and show yourself a man. When the fire was lit, the flames did not touch his body, and the executioner had to stab him; Polycarps blood gushed out and put out the flames. Finally, when his body was found in the ashes, it was said to have not been roasted but rather baked as bread; and a sweet aroma of frankincense was said to have arisen from the pyre. Some early translations say a dove rose out of the pyre, but there is some debate about the accuracy of the translation. With the MPol and other examples of the genre, martyrdom was being shaped into a highly public sacrificial liturgy: in Christian theology, the Christians were Gods choice for martyrdom who were trained for the sacrifice. Martyrdom as Sacrifice In the Roman empire, criminal trials and executions were highly structured spectacles that dramatized the power of the state. They attracted mobs of people to see the state and criminal square off in a battle that the state was supposed to win. Those spectacles were intended to impress on the minds of the spectators how powerful the Roman Empire was, and what a bad idea it was to attempt to go against them. By turning a criminal case into a martyrdom, the early Christian church emphasized the brutality of the Roman world, and explicitly converted the execution of a criminal into a sacrifice of a holy person. The MPol reports that Polycarp and the writer of the MPol considered Polycarps death a sacrifice to his god in the Old Testament sense. He was bound like a ram taken out of a flock for sacrifice and made an acceptable burnt-offering unto God. Polycarp prayed that he was happy to have been found worthy to be counted among the martyrs, I am a fat and acceptable sacrifice. Epistle of St. Polycarp to the Philippians The only surviving document known to have been written by Polycarp was a letter (or perhaps two letters) he wrote to the Christians at Philippi. The Phillippians had written to Polycarp and asked him to write an address to them, as well as to forward a letter they had written to the church of Antioch, and to send them any epistles of Ignatius he might have. The importance of Polycarps epistle is that it explicitly ties the apostle Paul to several pieces of writing in what would eventually become the New Testament. Polycarp uses expressions such as as Paul teaches to quote several passages which are today found in different books of the New Testament and the Apocrypha, including Romans, 1 and 2 Corinthians, Galatians, Ephesians, Philippians, 2 Thessalonians, 1 and 2 Timothy, 1 Peter, and 1 Clement. Sources Ari, Bryen. Martyrdom, Rhetoric, and the Politics of Procedure. Classical Antiquity 33.2 (2014): 243–80. Print.Bacchus, Francis Joseph. St. Polycarp. The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 12. New York City: Robert Appleton Company, 1911. Print.Berding, Kenneth. Polycarp of Smyrnas View of the Authorship of 1 and 2 Timothy. Vigiliae Christianae 53.4 (1999): 349–60. Print.Moss, Candida R. On the Dating of Polycarp: Rethinking the Place of the Martyrdom of Polycarp in the History of Christianity. Early Christianity 1.4 (2010): 539–74. Print.Norris, Frederick W. Ignatius, Polycarp, and I Clement: Walter Bauer Reconsidered. Vigiliae Christianae 30.1 (1976): 23–44. Print.Pionius, Alexander Roberts, and James Donaldson. [English Translation of ]the Martyrdom of Polycarp. Ante-Nicene Fathers. Eds. Roberts, Alexander, James Donaldson and A. Cleveland Coxe. Vol. 1. Buffalo, New Yokr: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1888 Print.Thompson, Leonard L. The Martyrdom of Pol ycarp: Death in the Roman Games. The Journal of Religion 82.1 (2002): 27–52. Print.

Strategies for Building Business Success Free Essay Example, 2750 words

The Menu Zaika is targeting on Atlantas growing demand for an ethnic multi-cuisine restaurant, a concept that fulfils the Atlantas need for choice and ambience at economic prices. While it was found that most of the Indian restaurants served mainly ‘Chicken Tikka Masala’ and other Mougali and non-vegetarian dishes, most of the Indian vegetarian delicacies were missing. The new menu filled the void by adding several new preparations with mouth-watering aroma. From just being an Indian restaurant, new business plan envisaged to make Zaika an ethnic restaurant that had flavors of traditional Chinese, Thai, Spanish, Mexican and Continental food to target the cosmopolitan customers from diverse backgrounds. Different eating sections ensured that the ambience matched the expectations of customers of different age groups. Menu also included ‘fixed meals’ or Thali as they call it in India, for the customer seeking value for their money. It also had mini-meals to take care of small hungers. Industry Analysis The restaurant and catering industry plays a major part in the economy of the United States. The industry size is $537 billion and its contribution is 4% of the Gross National Product (National Restaurant Association, 2007). We will write a custom essay sample on Strategies for Building Business Success or any topic specifically for you Only $17.96 $11.86/pageorder now The industry has registered impressive growth over past few years and further growth is projected in the future. This industry is also the biggest â€Å"non-governmental† employer of persons and teenagers. More importantly, the restaurant industry has become an essential part of the American life with nearly 50% of all adults eating out at restaurants at least one meal a day (National Restaurant Association & Deloitte & Touche, 2000). The restaurants are classified into four categories by The National Restaurant Association (NRA). These are: Full service - average check under $10 Full service - average check between $10 and $25 Full service - average check more than $25 Limited service - fast food The biggest of these segments is fast-food sector (also known as quick service) consisting of 48.7% of all eating joints. Full-service restaurants are the second largest section with 30.3% of the market share (NRA, et. al., 2007). Fast food restaurants are known for offering value for the money. Full-service restaurants offer environment where customers can entertain with family and friends. (NRA 2007) The Restaurant industry is a vibrant industry. The demographics of its customer base are rapidly renewing. The average age of adults will be 37.2 in 2010, versus 32.3 in 1990 (NRA et.

It Is Hard To Believe That The Colonizers Of Half Of The

It is hard to believe that the colonizers of half of the world, the English, had the worst vision for women, especially prostitutes. Their biggest backlash was being unable to give justice and proper treatment to everybody. Having a strong belief to change the society and their vision for prostitutes, Josephine Butler became a social worker and started a campaign against the cruelty of law enforcement officers. Josephine Butler was the author of this amazing book â€Å"Truth Before Everything† which portrays the struggle initiated with repealing laws and acts that allowed law enforcement officers to break the moral barrier. The book â€Å"Truth Before Everything† represents the author s dissatisfaction, attitude, uneasiness, and an intention to†¦show more content†¦Butler continued her entire life as a social reformer and a suffragist and taught political economy in the early years of her career. Throughout Butler’s life, many of the writings gained prom inence. Some of them are, The Constitution Violated (1871), Social Purity (1879), The Hour Dawn (1882), Truth Before Everything (1898), and Native Races and The War (1900). For all the effort and hardship, Butler received the Grand Cross of the order of the British Empire in 1924. Butler was honored with an Honorary of Doctorate of Laws from University of St. Andrews in 1905 before receiving the cross. Butler could achieve this feat due to the constant support of George, a husband who never left wife’s side and always valued decisions made by Josephine. Her husband continued to support her even after he was ordered to leave his job in the university because of Butler’s revolution campaign. The vision of society for women or specifically prostitutes was totally inadmissible back in mid-1800’s. Due to the low economic background and pitiful situations, young girls were compelled to join the darkest part of society, a place where there’s no turning back, a p lace where she will be treated as a puppet, an evil part of a society called prostitution. Going to school and having a good outdoor job was for men, for women, it was none other than household jobs. The critical condition in the poor family made young girls walk towards hell. Back in time, there was a one-sidedShow MoreRelatedAnalysis Of John Stuart Mill s Flags, Anthems, Art, And Traditions1693 Words   |  7 PagesJohn Stuart Mill believes that identity is an important part in decision-making; he might even argue that it is necessary in order to have nationalism. However, one’s self identity and nationalism can easily be strengthened or weakened with the introduction of new customs and cultures, as apparent in Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe and Netherland by Joseph O’Neill. 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Motorcycle Essay Araby Anyone still capable of wondering aloud whether the last word on Joyce has not already been publisheddemonstrates an ignorance of the scope of the problem comparable to assuming that the Model T Ford is the lastword in locomotive possibilities (Benstock 1). This quote of Bernard Benstock serves as evidence to thecomplexity and the brilliance of James Joyces works. In fact, some would say that his works were too brilliantand complex, as it took ten years for his collection of short stories, Dubliners, to be published because hispublishing company refused to print it. As one critic said, It is difficult to speak of Dubliners because these arerealistic short stories (Jaloux 69). These stories first met resistance, but then were acclaimed as genius andclear hard prose. One story, Araby, was singled out by two renowned critics as the best of the collection(Atherton 39). Joyce was notorious for using common themes in his stories and leaving them for the reader tofind and interpret. T he dream of escape by the lead character, a partial foundation upon real life, and frustrationare all prevailing themes in Araby. Of all the themes employed by Joyce in Araby, none were so basic to thestorys meaning as the dream of escape (Atherton 13). This theme not only appears in his short stories, but in hismajor works as well. In Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man, the leading characters name is a suggestion ofescape, with Dedalus, of course, referring to the ancient Greek inventor who fashioned wings from wax and flewaway. This theme is considered to be the most important of the story because escaping from the mundane realityhe lives in is the whole premise behind the boys visit to the Araby circus. None of the events that transpired inthe telling of this story would have occurred had it not been for the boys drive to escape his surroundings, even ifit were only for one night. Although there has been no argument about the dream of escape, many disagreementshave risen over what causes this dream. The seemingly oppressive nature of his surroundings and the constantfeeling of being trapped are certainly motivations for the boy to dream of escape. In the story, he lives in a housemore or less devoid of love. Both the boy and his aunt fear the uncle, and Joyce implies that he drinks heavilyand the boy knows it. The house is somewhat bare, because they cannot afford to furnish it, and behind thehouse was a row of slum cottages of which the children who dwelled in them were referred to as the roughtribes(Atherton 40). All of these inglorious contributions to the atmosphere surrounding the young boy make itimpossible not to dream of escape. When he finally heard of the Araby circus and the possible escape it couldprovide him, there was nothing he could do to get the thought out of his head. As he states in the story, I couldnot call my wandering thoughts together. I had hardly any patience with the serious work of life, itseemed tomeugly monotonous childs pl ay (Joyce 37). Another thing Joyce relied on in his stories was their partialfoundation on real life. Although it is obvious he had a vivid imagination, he used his own life experiences in hiswork. Araby is certainly no exception. From May 14th to 19th, 1894, in Dublin, there is evidence of a bazaar bythe name of Araby that benefited a local hospital. At the time, Joyce would have been twelve years old, and thenor shortly after, he resided at 17 Richmond Street North, invariably the same house described in the story(Atherton 40). Similar incidences occurred during the boys trip to the Araby circus. For instance, Joycesreference to not finding a sixpenny entrance, which, being half the price of admission, is what a child wouldexpect to go in for. This suggests remembrance of an actual event and not just the motion of events as theywould occur in someones mind that had not experienced it. The final thing that upholds the sense of realism is theexact recollection of how much money is l eft in his pocket, and the implied realization that the boy knows hecannot buy anything or else he wont have enough money left for the train ride home (Atherton 46). One thingthat has always bothered readers of Joyces works is the reason he relied so heavily on using his ownexperiences as foundations for his stories. There have been numerous suggestions as to why he did this, but themost promising reason is to fill in the gaps in his life, especially in dealing with his childhood (Atherton 40). Whenconsidering the family situation in this story compared to Joyces at the time, he was in fact living with both of hisparents along with three brothers and six sisters. The portrayal of himself living with a childless aunt and uncle is atestament to the loneliness he felt living with nine siblings, and the lack of specialized attention from his father andmother. The deadness of the house emphasized by Joyce altering his family situation in the story helps to conveythe atmosphere of decaden ce he aimed at (Atherton 45). The final prevailing theme of Araby is the frustration ofthe boy. Frustration was a part of everyday life for the boy in the story. Every morning, he would suffer thefrustration of an infatuation with a girl he later realized he would never have. Every evening he dealt with thefrustration of a self-serving uncle of whom both he and his aunt were afraid. Then comes the frustration of hisuncle arriving home late on the night he is to visit Araby and delaying him further with jokes that were not funny(Joyce 39). The ultimate display of frustration in this story comes in the end, after the boy arrives at the circus tofind that most of the booths are already closed, and that he will have to go home empty-handed. As was alludedto earlier, the dream of escape comes back into play with the theme of frustration, as he is most frustratedbecause his one chance of escape has been denied. Joyce uses all of the previous frustration endured by the boyas a springboard for the epiphany he realized in the end. Before the boy had accepted all of the frustration thathad come with his life, and after the destruction of what was supposed to be his magical escape at Araby circus,all that frustration turns into anger and darkness. The fact that the boy has now turned to anger suggests adetermination emerging in him to find his escape, and as only Joyce can, he leaves the reader to determinewhether that goal would have been reached down the road (Atherton 46-7). Joyces Araby was arguably one ofthe best of his short stories, and it included all of the elements typical in his writing; taking common themes andleaving everything else to the readers imagination. The three common themes used in Araby, dream of escape,partial foundation on real life, and frustration, all leave a lot to the imagination. Joyce has a sixth sense of knowingjust how far to develop each theme in order to create endless possibilities of discussion, which is why his workshave stood up t o the scrutiny of countless critics and new angles of discussion are being introduced all the time. .u97287c76d325f64fad787f6aad51ba2d , .u97287c76d325f64fad787f6aad51ba2d .postImageUrl , .u97287c76d325f64fad787f6aad51ba2d .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u97287c76d325f64fad787f6aad51ba2d , .u97287c76d325f64fad787f6aad51ba2d:hover , .u97287c76d325f64fad787f6aad51ba2d:visited , .u97287c76d325f64fad787f6aad51ba2d:active { border:0!important; } .u97287c76d325f64fad787f6aad51ba2d .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u97287c76d325f64fad787f6aad51ba2d { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u97287c76d325f64fad787f6aad51ba2d:active , .u97287c76d325f64fad787f6aad51ba2d:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u97287c76d325f64fad787f6aad51ba2d .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u97287c76d325f64fad787f6aad51ba2d .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u97287c76d325f64fad787f6aad51ba2d .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u97287c76d325f64fad787f6aad51ba2d .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u97287c76d325f64fad787f6aad51ba2d:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u97287c76d325f64fad787f6aad51ba2d .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u97287c76d325f64fad787f6aad51ba2d .u97287c76d325f64fad787f6aad51ba2d-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u97287c76d325f64fad787f6aad51ba2d:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Childhood Shyness and Childrens Literature Essay WORKS CITED Atherton, J. S. Araby. James Joyces Dubliners. Ed. Clive Hart. New York: The VikingPress, 1969. 39-47. Benstock, Bernard. Introduction. Critical Essays on James Joyce. By Bernard Benstock. Boston: G. K. Hall Company, 1985. 1. Jaloux, Edmond. A French View of Dubliners. James Joyce TheCritical Heritage. Ed. Robert H. Deming. New York: Barnes and Noble, Inc., 1970. 69-70. Joyce, James. Dubliners. New York: Parkway Printing Company, 1926. 33-41. ARABY ENC1102 Section 54 February 23,1999 Word Count: 1348 Miscellaneous